Friday, August 7, 2015

Subbranches of science

Acoustics

Acoustic basically deals with the study of sounds therefore it is called Science of sounds. So, we can say that Acoustic is a branch of science that deals with the production, transmission and reception. it also includes the study of musical instruments. Other than this, it also studies the other topics related to sounds such as noise control, SONAR, thermoacoustic refrigeration, ultrasounds, bio acoustics and seismology etc.

Acrobatics

It basically deals with the art of performing acrobatic feats that are known as gymnastics.

Aerodynamics

It deals with the motion of gases and air. It also includes the the study of motion and control of solid bodies, like aircraft, missiles, etc, in the air.

Aeronautics: 

It is known as the science of flights

Aerostatics



The branch of statics that deals with gases in equilibrium and with gas and bodies in them.

Maser And Lasers

Maser is stands for Microwave Amplification by Stimulated emission of Radiation. A class of amplifiers and oscillators that make use of internal energy of atom and molecules to obtain low noise level amplification and micro wave oscillation of precisely determined frequencies. Stimulated emission, which is the basic principal n which these devices work, is emission the emission by an atom in an excited quantum state of photon, as the result of the impact of photon from outside of exactly equal energy. Thus stimulating photon, or wave, is augmented by the one emitted by the excited atom. A maser consists of an "active medium"in most of the atoms can optically pumped to an excited state by subjecting the system to electromegnatic radiation of different frequencies to that of stimulating frequency. An active medium is enclosed in a resonant cavity so that wave is build up with only one mode of oscillation, which is equivalent to a single output frequency. Maser can also be made to operate at optical frequencies, when referred to as optical maser or laser.

The term laser derived from the technical name for the process ; light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.  Stimulation emission is the emission of a photon (a particle of light). Laser is an instrument  which produces a beam of light. However, laser light is much more powerful than ordinary light. It has such high energy that it can cut through very hard substances such as metal and diamond. metal are also joined together or welded , using laser.   

Temprature and Heat

Temperature of something refers to how hot it is?To measure the temperature some scales are discovered. The temperature scales are divided into the degrees.

Celsius Scale:

The most common scale is Celsius scale that was discovered by Anders Celsius, in 1742. The Celsius scale measure the temperature in centigrade. A degree centigrade is often shown as C. On this scale , the temperature at which ice turns to water (melting point.) is 0 degree centigrade, and the point at which water turns to steam (boiling point) is 100 degree centigrade, at normal air pressure.

Fahrenheit Scale:

 The other temperature scale  that is most common in use is Fahrenheit scale, by Gabriel Fahrenheit in 1714. It is shown as F. According to this scale the melting point of ice is 32degree Fahrenheit and the boiling point of water is 212 degree Fahrenheit, at normal air pressure.
To change the centigrade into Fahrenheit, multiply the given temperature by 915 and add 32. To change the  degree Fahrenheit into centigrade, subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.

Kelvin Scale:

Another scale that is used to measure the temperature is Kelvin scale.  It is mostly used in scientific work. The melting point of ice is over 273 degree Kelvin, and boiling point of water is 373 degree Kelvin, at normal air pressure.

Heat

The energy that transferred from one body or system to another as a result of  temperature difference is known as heat.  heat is measured in joules, like the all other forms of energy, in SI units.In c.g.s units, it is measured in calories. In imperial units it is measured in British thermal  units

Big Bang Theory

Big Bang is a theory about the beginning of the universe. It is said that all the matter was packed close together, or, in other words that everything that we know today was present in a form of single body. Round about 15,000 to 20,000 million years ago, there was a huge explosion and all the matter was scattered in the space. That explosion is known as Big Bang. In the result of that big bang all the galaxies were formed and they are still moving away from each other  till now. Most of the astronomers agree with the theory.
Observation of galaxies proves that theses galaxies are still moving far from each other. And the universe is expanding with the passage of time.
The big bang consider the age of universe also. The explanations of big bang theory shows that at a time the universe was too hot and dense, therefore it began to expand rapidly. But after the initial expansion, it started to be cooled in such a way that the energy can be transformed into subatomic particles , such as electrons, neutrons etc. It is said that the first nuclei was formed within next few minutes after that great explosion that is known as Big Bang.
In short Big Bang theory is a scientific theory and is accepted by scientific communities of the world. There are other theories also about the universe such as, Steady State. But the Big Bang is most popular among all other theories. 

ChickenPox (Varicella) and Cholera

Chickenpox (Varicella):

It is a disease, common in childhood and infectious before four days from the rash appears, until seven days after appearing the rash.Its incubation period usually last for 14 days. The rash, which may be preceded by mild headache or fever. It begins as red spots, and within a few hours raised in such a way, they become clear blister. Within two or three days these blisters becomes opalescent and then scab over, with many corps of blisters that appear over a period of 5 to 7 days. This rash can occur on any part of the body, including mouth and scalp. 
Infect chickenpox is caused by virus called, Herpes zoster. There is specific treatment for this disease. The victim should avoid scratching with dirty hand and nails and to relieve itch. 

Cholera:

Cholera is an acute infection in the intestine of victim. This infection causes profuse watery diarrhea, vomiting and dehydration. It is caused by consuming water or food contaminated by bacterium Vibrio comma, which is found in faeces. It can be prevented by the supply of clean water. Its vaccination is also available; two injections are injected at the interval of two to four months and is also effective for six to nine months, after which booster doses are needed.

AIDS

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency  Syndrome). This fatal disease was first introduced in Los Angeles, in 1981. The virus that cause AIDS is known as HIV (Human Immune-Deficiency Virus). This disease spread through ;
  • oral sex or sexual intercourse with someone who carries this virus, especially if it is anal intercourse.
  • by the use of infected needles or instruments that contaminated with HIV infected blood.
  • by receiving the blood or blood products from someone carrying HIV.
  • from the mothers who are carrying HIV which can pass into baby.  
AIDS is spreading so rapidly throughout the western world, and has an epidemic proportion in the eastern and central Africa.
This virus attacks the particular type of white blood cells that reduce the ability to combat infection. It can attack the nervous system also. Therefore acute infection leads to the production of antibodies. When someone acquire that virus, a transient flu-like sickness with gland swelling and muscles aches may occurs.

Infection in Living beings

 Organisms that can cause sickness are present all around us; in air, water, soil, food and in the bodies of other animals and plants. Therefore when some of these harmful organisms pass through the body of a living being, it resulted in infection in that body.
Infection is the diseased condition found in both animals and plants. When harmful micro organisms e.g bacteria, viruses enter the tissue of victim and get multiply. Such micro-organisms are mostly unicellular ; bacteria, viruses and protozoans. Other than these, many kinds of fungus, worms and arthropods.
Trees are often become infected when the bark is damaged by grazing animals or through loss of branches. Spores enters in trees and cause deformities, fruit loss or even death also. Infection also occurs when the roots become damaged and allow soil born organism to enter in the body.
Infection in animals can be caused by wounds and injuries. Some kinds of infection in human beings are passed through the tiny droplets of water that are produced in result of sneezing. The common cold is transmitted to another person in this way.The common cold is caused by a virus which infects the cells of our mouth, nose and throat. Some infection need proper medical treatments and some are cured by the victim's own defense mechanism. 

The ways of transmission of infection in a body:

Air born transmission:

Infection caused by the tiny droplets  that are present in the air from the nose, saliva or dust particles.

contamination:

Infection that is caused by the food and water containing infected materials e.g faeces or urine.

Direct contact:

Infection through the close contact with an infected body. Usually skin infection caused by direct contacts.

Blood Born Transmission:

Infection that passed through the injection of contaminated blood and blood products or by the use of improper sterilized instruments. 

Animal born Transmission:

Infection by the contaminated   saliva, for example, Malaria that is carried through the mosquito's bites and bubonic plague that transmitted through the flea bites

Metabolism

The chemical processes associated with with living organisms is called Metabolism.It is usually divided into two parts; catabolism and anabolism.

Catabolism:

Catabolism is a process in which complex substances are decomposed into simple ones.With the release of energy, which becomes available for the organism's activity. In short, catabolism breakdown the organic matters and release energy that  and usually used to drive chemical reactions and anabolic reactions in the body.

Anabolism:

Anabolism involves in building up of complex substances with the absorption or storage of energy.The simpler substances are combined to form more complex molecules in as a result of anabolic reactions. Anabolic reactions need energy that usually comes from catabolic reactions. Therefore anabolic reactions build new molecules and store energy that stored in ATP

Metabolic reactions are usually under the control of enzymes, which are consequently of immense importance in chemistry of life. Metabolic processes are very similar throughout the plants and animal kingdoms. There are therefore corresponding similarities between the enzymes manufactured by organisms.  

Balanced Diet

All of us know that energy is an activating factor. All living things including human beings need energy for growth and for the activities of life. Without sufficient amount of energy we can not be able to do even lighter tasks of daily life and food is the main source of energy for all living beings.
 In short we need food for the following type of purposes:
  • as a source of energy
  • form the growth and repairing process of body
  • for the maintenance of health and protection against diseases.  
All of us take food on daily bases according to our choice and taste. Now the question is "To how much extent that food fulfill our needs or useful for us?" The answer is very simple, the balanced deit can fulfill our needs.

Balanced Diet:

A balanced diet contains the various classes of food in appropriate proportion. it should provide:
  • sufficient energy to meet the daily energy requirements of the body.
  • sufficient body building substances, such as proteins, for growth and repairing process of body.
  • Sufficient mineral salts and vitamins for health.
If we take variety of foods, a deficiency of any of the main class of food is unlikely. but it is difficult to say precisely "how much each of the classes of food, a person needs on daily basis."  This is because it varies according to age, sex, size, climate and tasks of life of a person. For example a person who serves with heavy labor, needs more energetic foods as compare to a person who person who perform simple clerical tasks in an office.  In the same way a growing child need comparatively large amounts of proteins in his diet.  In short, every person needs balanced diet according to his/her demands and requirements.


While choosing the food for yourself or your family you should make sure that the food is fresh and of high quality.

Classes Of food

Different food substances play different role in human body.Human body needs several different kinds of food substances to keep ourselves healthy. The food that we take may be classified as following;
  • Carbohydrates 
  • Fats
  • Protein
  • Vitamins
  • Mineral salts
  • Water
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. e.g, glucose, cane, sugar, starch etc.Foods containing sugar, honey, fruits,jams or foods containing starch such as, rice maize, potato, bread, biscuits, and flour are rich in carbohydrates.  The carbohydrates are the main source of energy.

Fats:

Fats are the compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but proportion of hydrogen is higher than others.Cashew nuts, ground nuts, kernel, cheese, coconut, butter, cream are the foods that are rich in fats. Fats are not only the source of energy for the body, but, the fats stored under the skin also helps to insulate the body against heat loss.. These are especially important to people living in the cold climates. 

Proteins:

Proteins are the compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Phosphorus and sulfur are  also present in proteins.  Lean meat, fish, milk, cheese and eggs are rich in animal proteins.therefore, peas,  beans, groundnuts and cashew nuts are rich in plant proteins. proteins plays an important part in growth and repairing process of worn out parts of body. Deficiency in proteins may lead to the kwashiorkor   disease in children. such children suffer from an enlargement of liver, changes in pigmentation of skin and hair, and general drowsiness.

Vitamins:

Vitamins are substances required by animal and human for health. Lack of vitamin in diet may result in deficiency disease. There are different types of vitamin, Vitamin A, Vitamin B, Vitamin C, Vitamin D and vitamin K.  It should also be noted that some of vitamins if taken in excessive amounts, may be harmful to body.  Large quantities of vitamin tablets are not suitable except medical advice.

Mineral Salts:

Mineral salts provide other elements besides, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, according to the need of body for proper growth and development.

Water:

Water makes up the main part of living bodies. About two third of the weight of human body is consist of water.Usually a man can survive a longer period without solid food but can not survive without water.Many chemical reaction that take place in human body need water. Water is solvent for many food substances.
Other than this water is also needed to maintain body temperature in hot seasons. A body lose a great amount of water in urine, breath and sweating. Therefore,  we need to drink  a sufficient amount of water or food containing more water such as, leafy vegetables and juicy fruits, so that , we can balance the amount of water in our body.



Why Does Setting Sun Appear Red?

The scene of setting sun is observed by thousands of people on daily bases.Sometimes it looks so romantic and beautiful that it touches the heart. Many people are so inspired by that beautiful phenomenon, that's why, they go to sea side or any other open place just to enjoy the sun set.
 But the question is, Why it appears red, when it going to be set.

 Technical reason of being red at the time of setting sun:
image source Deviant Art

The setting sun appears red as it approaches the horizon because of the scattering of light by very minute particles of dust or smoke near the surface of earth.At noon the sun is overhead whereas it is near the horizon  at the time of  sunrise or sun set. A ray of light has to cover a greater distance through the atmosphere in later case. Component colors of sun light have different wave length. The longest wavelength is of Red light. The minute dust particles suspended in the air can scatter colors of short wavelength only, like, blue and violet. While the red color that is of longer wave length, able to pass through the atmosphere and does not scatter. That's why, the setting sun seems red. 

Rainbow

image source davient art
When rain storm passes and sun shines again in the sky, we sometimes see a brightly colored arch against the dark background of departing clouds apposite to the sun. The rainbow is an optical phenomenon produced by reflection, refraction and dispersion of sunlight in tiny spherical raindrops on which it falls. It is, in fact, the spectrum of sunlight formed by raindrops suspended in the air. The colors of rainbow are similar to those which are obtained in the solar spectrum through glass prism. The rainbow is so called because it is formed in bow shape. There are two types of rainbow.

Primary Rainbow:

This is formed by two refractions, one internal refraction and dispersion. In this, Violet color is on lower edge but red color is on outer edge.

Secondary Rainbow:

This is formed by two refractions, two internal  reflections and dispersion. In this type of rain bow red color is at bottom whereas violet color is on the outer edge. It may noted that secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary rainbow. 

Nitrogen cycle and Carbon cycle

Nitrogen Cycle:

Nitrogen is necessary for the formation of proteins. Certain bacteria can change the nitrogen in the air to nitrates in the soil. Green plants absorb the nitrates from the soil and use them to make proteins. Animals fed on plants and use their proteins for growth. When the plants and the animals die, their bodies decay or get broken down by the bacteria and fungi. In this way, nitrates are released  back into soil. 


Carbon Cycle:

The carbon cycle refers to the circulation of carbon through the ecosystem. Carbon dioxide from the air is used up by green plants to make sugar and other
substances. When animals eat the plants, they take these carbon compounds. Eventually, the plants and animals die. Bacteria and fungi obtain the carbon compounds from the dead bodies of these plants and animals. Respiration in living organisms release carbon dioxide back into the air.

The Living World

TWSXT3HA4HZF The science of life, strictly speaking, Biology includes all the life of sciences. For example, anatomy, physiology, botany, cytology, zoology, genetics, ecology, biochemistry and biophysics; animal's behavior, embryology, and the plants dreading. These are some important branches of biology.

    Bio-engineering: 

 The application of engineering to biology and medicine. Common applications include the design and use of artificial limbs, joints and organs, including hip joint and heart valves.

Biophysics:

The application of physical laws to the properties of living organisms.

Botany:

The study of plants is divided into a number of smaller studies, such as, the identification and classification of plants( taxonomy), their external formation (plants morphology) etc. Horticulture, agriculture and forestry are the specialized branches of Botany. 

SI Units and Derived Units


A number of systems of units based upon the metric system, have been in use. Initially the CGS system based upon the centimeter for length, the gram for mass and the second for time, was widespread. It has, however, largely be replaced by the MKS system. In MKS system, the basic unit for length is meter for length, the kilogram is for mass and the second is for time.   

Now SI units are applied for all scientific and technical measurements or purposes. The Si units are in general use for most of the other purposes in the majority of countries.

The base units for SI system are as following:
  • meter: the unit of length
  • Kilogram: the unit of mass
  • Second: the unit of time
  • Ampere: the unit of electric current
  •  Kelvin: the degree of temperature measured on Kelvin scale.
  • Candela: the unit of luminous intensity
  • Mole: the unit of substance.

Derived Units


Quantity
Unit
Symbol
Area
Square meter
m2
Volume
Cubic meter
m3
Velocity
Meter per second
m.s-1
Angular velocity
Radian per second
rad s-1
Acceleration
Meter per second squared
m.s-2
Angular acceleration
Radian per second squared
rad s-2
Frequency
Hertz
Hz
Density
Kilogram per cubic meter
Kg. m-3
Momentum
Kilogram meter per second
Kg.m.s-1
Angular momentum
Kilogram meter squared per second
Kg.m2.s-1
Moment of inertia
Kilogram meter squared
Kg.m2
Force
Newton
N
Pressure, stress
Pascal
Pa
Energy, work quantity of heat
Joule
J
Power
Watt
W
Surface tension
Newton per meter
N.m-1
Dynamic viscosity
Meter second per meter squared
N.s.m-2
Kinematic viscosity
Meter squared per second
m2.s-1
Temperature
Degree Celsius
oC
Thermal coefficient of linear expansion
Per degree Celsius or per kelvin
oC, K-1
Thermal conductivity
Watt per meter degree C
W.m-1 oC-1
Heat capacity
Joule per kelvin
J.k-1
Specific heat capacity
Joule per kilogram kelvin
J.kg-1.K-1
Specific latent heat
Joule per kilogram
J.kg-1
Electric charge
Coulomb
C
Electromotive force , potential difference
Volt
V
Electric resistance
ohm
Ω
Electric conductance
Siemens
S
Electric capacitance
Farad
F
Inductance
Henry
H
Magnetic flux
Weber
Wb
Magnetic flux density
Testa
T
Magneto motive force
Ampere
A
Luminous flux
Lumen
Lm
Illumination
Lux
Lx
Radiation activity
Becquerel
Bq
Radiation absorbed dose
Gray
Gy

Viruses


Virus is a disease producing particle. It is too small to be seen with naked eyes or an optical microscope, but , it can be seen with an electron microscope. It is basically unicellular. And is in between living and nonliving. Viruses are only capable of multiplication within a living cell. Each type of virus requires a specific host cell.

The simplest virus consists of a single helical strand of ribonucleic  acid coated with protein molecules. The active principle of these viruses resides in a RNA as it is only this part of the particle that entry the cell.
Other viruses are considerably more complex and may be up to 0.2 micrometer in diameter. Therefore, viruses are considered to be on the borderline between the animate and inanimate. 
In short viruses are most basic form of life, simply consists of a protein coat protecting a strand of DNA. they can only reproduce inside a living cell of another organism, and the cells are destroyed in the process.this is why viruses cause diseases.

What is Science

The word science is derived from a Latin word "Scientia" means knowledge. The linguistic meaning of science is
 " The knowledge or system of knowledge covering general truths or the operations of general laws, especially as obtained and tested through the scientific method."  (Merriam Webster)

We can define science generally in the following words; Science is the study of physical universe and its contents by the means of observation, measurements and experiments that are reproducible and are aimed to establish, verify or modify the general laws to explain the behavior and nature of the universe.
Now the science has many branches but mainly it has two major departments:

  •  Natural sciences: The natural sciences involve the study of natural or physical universe.
  • Social Sciences: The social sciences involve systematic study of behavior and society.


These both departments of are divided into several branches e.g biology, psychology etc. These branches are further divided into more branches,  e.g Cognitive psychology, Clinical Psychology etc.
These branches are made for the comprehensive and to the point study of each field of Science.

There is no Hope of Doing Perfect Research (Griffiths, 1998, p97), Do You Agree?


According to Griffiths (1998, p97), “There is no hope of doing perfect research”. Before discussion, it would be important to know, what does research mean? The word research defined by Merriam Webster dictionary, as, “studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of  facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new fact, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws.” (Merriam-webster.com) this shows that research involved in discovering the facts and figured knowledge and inventing new devices, or, improving their present status.
Therefore no one can say that one has discovered or invent a thing, which no need to improve, or, which is perfect, because, there always a room is spare. In this sense the research can’t be perfect, because it always leads to more researches. For example, there were lot of theories about our solar system that have been changing time to time; one of those was the discovery of Pluto.
When Pluto was found, it was considered third planet to be discovered, after Uranus and Neptune, as opposed to the sixth planets that have been visible in the sky to the naked eyes since ancient times. The existence of ninth planet had been postulated beginning in the late 19th century on the basis of apparent perturbation of the orbital motion of Uranus, which suggested that a more-distant body was gravitationally disturbing it.(Tobias Chant Owen, Discoveries of Pluto and its moons, history.com)


But according to later researches, now it is not considered a planet. According to Tobias, “If Pluto had been discovered in the context of the Kuiper belt rather than as an isolated entity, it might never have been ranked with eight planets.” (Pluto’s status as a solar system member, history.com) He further said, “Moreover, about the turn of 21st century, astronomers observed several KBOs that are each roughly the size of Charon and one, named Eris, that is slightly larger than Pluto itself. Because Pluto was no longer unique in the outer reaches of solar system, it became incumbent on astronomers either to admit additional member into the planetary ranks or to exclude Pluto.” (Tobias, Pluto’s status as a solar system member, history.com) and it does not mean that it stops here; there would be more researches for Pluto’s status and solar system.
In the same way Graham Bell invented the telephone, but the telephone itself was an improvement in telegraph, “The telegraph and telephone are both wire-based electrical systems, and Alexander Graham Bell’s success with the telephone came as direct result of his attempt to improve telegraph.” (Mary Bellis, inventors.about.com) and now the telephones are quite different than those of Bell’s. These are more advanced and more useful. And there would be more improvements in future.
But it does not mean that a researcher should start his research with a thought in mind that he is not able do it perfect, a researcher should do his research as perfect, because, if a researcher achieves his goal, in that sense, it would be a perfect research. For example Graham Bell wanted to improve telegraph and he had done it, it means he was successful in his achievement.
In short words there is a hope of achievement in research, but, no hope of perfect research, because we are human being who are not perfect. There can be flaws in man’s work. In this way, we can say, “There is no hope of doing perfect research.”

Work Cited
Bellis, Mary,”The History of the Telephone” inventors.about.com. web. 8Jan. 2012
Owen, Tobias Chant, “Discoveries of Pluto and its Moons.” web. 7Jan. 2012
---. “Pluto’s Status as a Solar System Member.” Web. 8Jan.2012
“Merriam Webster dictionary.” Web. 7Jan. 2012